Introduction

The close of the twentieth century witnessed remarkable progress in science and technology with even more astounding advancements looming on the horizon. Mapping the human genome and development of nanotechnology are but two examples of phenomena that have far-reaching effects on society and the future. On-going research and development promises continued growth at an accelerated rate in the fields of science and technology. Accompanying this growth are exciting opportunities and challenges for technical communicators, as well as additional responsibilities. This essay discusses the rhetoric of science and technology, its impact on society, and the role of the technical communicator in facilitating the transition of an often tentative populace into a high tech future.

Rhetoric of Science and Technology

Rhetoric is a fundamental component of communication and, consequently, intrinsic to the vocation of technical communicators. It is a "meaning-making tool " a system that helps writers and speakers use language to make sense of the world they live in" (Koerber 58). The term is often used to refer to a body of writing but it more specifically connotes persuasion, a means to influence. Rhetoric has a powerful impact on society's values and views of the world. It influences how resources are allocated, what technology is promoted, and even the direction of scientific research.

The positivist foundation of scientific inquiry would seem to dispute the notion of any rhetorical influence. The very tenets of scientific discovery are based on observable truths and held to be purely objective. Be as it may, we find that truths and objectivity are not the absolutes once believed. Kuhn purports that truth is a construction of society. "In the years since Thomas Kuhn published the Structure of Scientific Revolutions, researchers have developed his claim that scientific knowledge is created not only in the observations that scientists make of nature but also in the agreements that they reach among themselves" (Winsor 343). Research shows that we are incapable of total objectivity because we are physiologically hardwired to respond to stimuli on an emotional level prior to conscious reasoning. Additionally, "sociologists have shown the extent to which anticipated need to present an argument shapes natural observations themselves (Latour and Woolgar; Gilbert and Mulkay). Scientists chose what to observe and how to structure the observations at least partly because they are constructing answers to anticipated arguments" (Winsor 343).

Technology is the embodiment of applied science and, as such, incorporates the rhetoric inherent in its scientific foundation. "Technical facts and artifacts, like scientific facts and artifacts, are " at least to a significant extent " constructed through discursive transactions that accompany the process of technology development" (Ornatowski 332). Consequently, development stems from rhetoric. And it is driven by the recognition of a niche. "Technical needs do not typically preexist their fulfillment; they are not gaps to be filled. Rather, they are created between participants in a deal that furthers mutual interests" (Ornatowski 320). The resulting manifestation, the melding of scientific discovery and knowledge, becomes the rhetoric itself. "Ultimately, it is the material object that conveys the primary rhetoric and not the language that went into forming the technology and conceiving its uses and meanings" (Bazerman 385). Dorothy A. Winsor illustrates this with a "clear example of a material object being used for a rhetorical purpose" (351) from her conversation with an engineer in one of her studies. "He uses these gears partly as visual evidence. He told me that "if someone says the tooth can't look that bad, I can show them the part and say ‘here it is'" (field notes, 11 July 1996)" (Winsor 351). Once developed, the technology, through its own manifestation, must persuade users of the its utility. If it is unconvincing the technology does not succeed.

Blurring of Boundaries

Increasingly, characteristics that previously distinguished science and technology are blending into shared traits. Within some large-scale projects we see what we used to think of as the distinctive roles of science and technology become difficult to tease apart (Miller). Boundaries are blurring. The sophistication and advancement of scientific knowledge and techniques have resulted in technological developments that are increasingly esoteric and often removed from the public at large. Large-scale financial investment by private industry has interjected a profit motive in scientific research to satisfy investors. And federal grant funding places increased emphasis on research findings that can support technology transfer, in part, to justify the spending of taxpayer dollars. This need for "external justification of projects has altered the relationship between science and technology" (Miller 293). The enormous cost of research facilities and specialized equipment has shifted scientific motivation from that of curiosity and knowledge for knowledge's sake to concern for return on investment. The patenting of pharmaceuticals and marketing of cryogenics are two examples of this trend. The influx of money and resources has accelerated scientific progress to the extent that it, along with technology, seems to have acquired a momentum of its own. Historically it was thought that science reflected society's culture and values but it is increasingly changing society's views of ourselves and the world. The human genome project and other genetic research provide an example. "Rather than appealing to religion or other sets of beliefs to explain who we are, we are coming closer to being able to explain this entirely in terms of genetics" (Koerber 62).

Cognitive Distance

The increased complexity and momentum of scientific and technological advancements are beyond the understanding of the common person. Many developments in these fields touch the lives of the general populace, such as genetic testing for inherited diseases and computer chips in automobiles. However, while these examples are generally considered beneficial enhancements to our well being and life styles, they can also be perceived as a means to erode individuals of control over their own lives and render them compliant and dependent. Langdon Winner states that "members of the technological society actually know less and less about the fundamental structures and processes sustaining them. The gap between the realities of the world and the pictures individuals have of that world grows even greater" (qtd. in Miller 301). Because of technology's "complexity (which relies on knowledge that is more specialized than ordinary individuals have) and because of its scale (which involves not individuals but teams and organizations), high technology seems inhuman, unnatural" (Miller 309-10). Developments beyond the reach of most, such as human cloning and nanotechnology, threaten to change society and its values. The cognitive distance and impersonal nature of scientific and technological advancements can be overwhelming and frightening. In light of these circumstances, the question arises regarding the role of technical communicators. What are their responsibilities as intermediaries between the scientific and technological developments of the subject matter experts (SMEs) and the non-experts?

Role of the Technical Communicator

Apprehension related to concerns about the direction and impact of science and technology and its increasing sophistication calls for a higher level of expertise from technical communicators in order to meet today's exciting opportunities and challenges. As an intermediary, the technical communicator has responsibilities to both sides of the exchange. "Any full understanding of the effects of technology on writing, rhetoric, professional communication, and consciousness must consider both sides at once" (Hassett 22). Information must be communicated in such a way that it meets the objective of the SME, transmits a message that is accurate, easy to understand, and useful, and facilitates the non-expert's transition through the material. The technical communicator must comprehend the topic, which is often complex, understand the needs and concerns of the non-expert, and present the materials in a way that informs while alleviating fears and instilling confidence in the product and the message. "By picking apart the conjunction of the powerful discursive forces that create value for and give shape to technological developments and their uses, we can begin to regain some of our choices about the technological future we will live in" (Bazerman 387). To fully meet the challenges and demands of this role calls for more than just the pragmatic technical skills needed to construct materials from formulaic templates or style sheets. It requires a professional repository of specialized knowledge, techniques, and communication theory from which to draw and ethical standards to guide practices and safeguard humanistic values.

Professional Repository

The professional repository is built and maintained through continual training and reading on specialized subject matters, current topics in technical communication, new and innovative techniques, and communication theory. Reading and attending seminars on specialized subject matters keeps the technical communicator up on relevant issues and enhances credibility with both the SME and non-experts. Learning new techniques contributes to a broader and more diverse inventory from which to tap. And continued exposure to communication theories edifies new and innovative approaches to effective communication. This on-going erudition forges a rich repertoire that provides insight into effective approaches to communication and tools for identifying and solving problems and overcoming obstacles. It contributes to an ever-expanding source of knowledge from which alternative ideas and perspectives can be pulled. This background contributes to the technical communicator's understanding of scientific and technical rhetoric, how it impacts advancements in these fields, and the potential effect it can have on society. It helps in identifying the most relevant questions and effective approaches to addressing them.

Ethics

In addition to the continual need for expansion of a professional repertoire there are societal responsibilities associated with the role of technical communicators. Insights gleaned from new and innovative techniques and approaches, theory, and knowledge of technological advances and directions will enable the technical communicator to inform non-experts and alleviate unfounded fears. A rich background provides the knowledge and skills needed to accomplish this, but must be accompanied by a professional code of ethics to be convincing. A code of ethics establishes credibility and trust by clarifying the technical communicator's role and responsibilities to SMEs and non-experts. Margaret Hamilton addresses the issue of ethics in a passage from her essay "Educating Our"Selves": The Ethics of Technology.

"As Johnson notes, technical communicators must continually ask themselves, "How can a practical profession - one that creates products that might alter human actions and possibly influence the way we live " ensure that it is acting responsibly? Is it even possible to know the potential consequences of our actions?" Lori Allen and Dan Voss list ten basic values of technical communication " honesty, legality, privacy, quality, teamwork, avoidance of conflicts, and advancement of the profession " which can be used to help respond to Johnson's questions (and which can, in fact, be applied to all ethical studies of language). They argue that ethical dilemmas are particularly hard to navigate if they are "gray" " in other words, if right and wrong cannot be clearly divided into black and white and perceived reality or actions fall somewhere in between, into the gray area between the two extremes. In such cases expediency becomes especially difficult to define." (22)

Johnson's question raises the importance of the technical communicator's responsibilities. And Allen and Voss's list of values provides a good foundation from which to begin formulating a code of ethics. The guidance of concrete guidelines serves as a reminder of commitments to experts and non-experts alike, responsibilities to society, and priorities in business transactions. The adoption of a formulized code of ethics would contribute greatly to the respect, status, and solidarity of the profession of technical communication.

Model of the Professional Technical Communicator

The challenges and apprehensions associated with scientific and technological advancements calls for a model of the professional technical communicator that meets the additional and ever-changing demands of the field. Figure 1 presents a model that addresses the issues raised in this essay. It illustrates the knowledge base necessary to understand the perspective and needs of both the SME and non-expert and to effectively meet their expectations. Additionally, the model shows the professional relationships of the three parties to each other.

FIGURE 1 Model of Professional Technical Communicator Knowledge Base and Relationship with Subject Matter Experts (SME) and Non-Experts

The model consists of three equally sized triangles. The professional technical communicator is represented by the middle triangle and is flanked between the other two, which represent the SME and non-expert. This positioning illustrates the intermediary relationship the technical communicator has with both parties. The equality of size shows an equal status amount the three.

The triangle is divided into four equal sections. One section overlaps the SME and another overlaps the non-expert. This demonstrates equal responsibility to each party and knowledge of the needs and perspectives of both. A third section, the inverted triangle located between the SME and non-expert, represents the pragmatic technical skills needed to provide fundamental services. These skills include such things as knowledge of programming languages, html, Web authoring software, and formulas for creating written documents and Websites. This section is the means that connects both sides. The fusion of these three equal parts represents the foundation of the technical communicator, a base from which to work. This base equates to the position of the technical communication practitioner.

The fourth section is free standing and rises above the base formed by the three previously mentioned parts. It contains the professional repository and code of ethics that distinguish the professional technical communicator from the practitioner. This section constitutes the knowledge, techniques, insights, and principles that enable the professional to see the big picture, identify and apply alternate approaches, and modify or enhance formulaic techniques to more effectively meet the needs of SMEs and non-experts. Resting on the base, the fourth section merges with it to create a triangle that is equal in size and height to the figures on either side. The absence of contact with the SME and non-expert figures in the top portion of the triangle demonstrates the autonomy and independence generated by this fusion of complimentary sections. The fourth section, in completing the triangle, creates the essence of technical communicator's professional status.

Conclusion

The rhetoric of science and technology has a powerful influence on society's values and view of the world. The accelerated rate of discovery and development in these fields and their complexities and esoteric nature has created apprehension and fear that progress is out of control. This situation creates exciting and challenging opportunities for technical communicators, as well as societal responsibilities. To meet the challenge of addressing the needs of SMEs and non-experts, alleviating fears, and keeping the public informed requires knowledge of communication theory, subject-matter expertise, and adherence to a code of ethics. A model illustrating the professional technical communicator's knowledge base and relationship with the SME and non-expert is presented.

Works Cited

Bazerman, Charles. "The Production of Technology and the Production of Human Meaning." Journal of Business and Technical Communication 12.3 (1998): 381-387.

Hamilton, Margaret. "Education Our "Selves": The Ethics of Technology." Midwest Modern Language Association 33.2 (2000): 17-26.

Hassett, Michael J. "Walter Ong, Technology, and the Transformation of Consciousness." Composition Studies 24.1-2 (1996): 19:26.

Koerber, Amy. "Toward a Feminist Rhetoric of Technology." Journal of Business and Technical Communication 14.1 (2000): 58-73.

Miller, Carolyn R. "Learning from History: World War II and the Culture of High Technology." Journal of Business and Technical Communication 12.3 (1998): 288-315.

Ornatowski, Cezar M. "2+2=5: If 2 is Large Enough: Rhetorical Spaces of Technology Development in Aerospace Engine Testing." Journal of Business and Technical Communication 12.3 (1998): 316-342.

Winsor, Dorothy A. "Rhetorical Practices in Technical Work." Journal of Business and Technical Communication 12.3 (1998): 343-370.